Topics

Along with the 7Starters, we can do add more words to a map to increase its effectiveness and achieve your objectives.  These words can include your mission statement or reflect the atmosphere of the work culture you want to create and maintain.  Maps can also be built solely around a specific word to make sure the organization is focused on that particular goal.  

Sections of This Page:

Topics >  These are words we find important that you can use in mapping to improve touchpoints and enhance experiences.  These words are listed in alphabetical order with some insight into each.  

Reflective Topics >  These topics are typically "under the hood".  They are not part of maps per se but we want to reflect on them to increase our long term performance.  The topics include sections of the brain that are influential in Approach-Avoid, along with personality types that impact actions. 

After each topic is a sentence or two sharing an idea on how one can use that particular topic in a map or a way to reflect on the topic in terms of its impact on approach avoid actions.

Each person has different past experiences and brain development - connections.  As such, think of these topics in that term.  As an example, Certainty is important.  However, it is not always the case.  It is generally the case that most people want certainty when purchasing goods and services.  This diversion between the importance of certainty reflects on the fact that each customer has their own set of predictions and needs.

Approach - Avoid Mindset

Before we begin, let's get into the mindset of Approach-Avoid.  Everything revolves around it.  Either we are approaching or avoiding.  By getting into the mindset of this fact, these words in your maps will carry more meaning and better execution of the experience.

DO:  Approach and Avoid is basic to the human experience.  For mapping, it is the premise of this site.  Either a customer/employee is approaching your organization or they are avoiding. 

Evolution has been littered with the remains of species that have failed to acquire one or more ways for accurately determining the beneficial/harmful impacts of environmental stimuli.....as such, all animate life, from the single-celled amoeba on up, is equipped with at least some basic form of approach-avoidance mechanism that produces and/or regulates movement toward potentially beneficial and positive stimuli and away from potentially harmful and negative stimuli. (1)

An accumulated body of research indicates that people evaluate most/all encountered stimuli on a good or bad dimension and that they do so immediately, without intention or awareness >

Automatic Evaluation Effect

Below, we will list important words that we feel can be added to Touchpoint and Experience Maps.  Also, on our Ideas Page, we have a list of Positive Words you can review.  Lastly, we will bring up topics that are "underneath the hood" that we feel are important to discuss.  

Note:  This page will be updated periodically to reflect your feedback and additional words that we may find useful for you.     

ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION

Achievement motivation (Approach) may be defined as > the energization and direction of behavior that is oriented toward the attainment of competence or the avoidance of incompetence.

Map how your organization can help a person achieve their goal (short term or long term)

APPROACH-AVOID CONFLICT

Approach-Avoidance Conflict is a psychological concept that refers to a situation where a person is both attracted to and repelled by the same goal or decision. This internal conflict happens because the same goal has both positive (approach) and negative (avoidance) aspects, creating ambivalence and tension.  This conflict can lead to indecision, anxiety, and procrastination of action.

Examples include:

Employee Experience - Job Promotion:

• Approach:        Higher salary, more status, career growth.
• Avoidance:       More responsibility, longer hours, potential stress.

Customer Experience - Adding a dessert at the end of a meal:

• Approach:       Enjoyment, satisfying a craving.
• Avoidance:       Guilt, breaking a diet, health consequences, financial.

Mapping Approach Avoid conflict at important touchpoints will most likely take more time and energy.  However, the results can be a large positive return on investment.

ATTENTION - FOCUS

Human perception is limited.  Human energy is limited.  Add to that the vast amount of information overload, and you get a society where attention becomes more expensive.  Customer and employee attention/focus is vital for the success of organizations.  

We highly recommend having an Attention - Focus Map.  Attention will become more expensive to obtain.  Being in front of this trend is vital in terms of adapting to change.

AUTHENTIC

Authenticity brings together many of the approach words like safety, trust, certainty, and it is easier for a brain to predict.  With the increase in energy to capture peoples attention along with misinformation and AI, products that bring more authenticity will also bring more approach.

Mapping authenticity will help your organization become more successful.  People are turned off by fake, they want real people they can share experiences with.

AUTHORITATIVE INFLUENCE

Authoritative influence is the kind of power or impact that stems from a recognized source of authority—someone or something that's respected, trusted, or seen as knowledgeable and legitimate.  It takes less energy if someone else does the work.

People are getting burned out.  So much information - so many decisions.  Knowing what to do can be overwhelming.  Someone with authority to help people understand information and make decisions will become even more valuable.

AUTONOMY - FREEDOM

Autonomy—our sense of self-direction and control over our actions—is a major driver of approach and avoid behavior. When people feel autonomous, they are more likely to engage in behavior willingly, enthusiastically, and persistently (approach). When autonomy is threatened or undermined, people often withdraw, resist, or disengage (avoidance).

Autonomy is the feeling that “I am the author of my actions.”
It involves choice, volition, and alignment between one's values and behaviors.

Autonomy is a basic psychological need, according to Self-Determination Theory (SDT) (Deci & Ryan, 1985), alongside relatedness and competence.

Deci & Ryan (1985, 2000): When people feel they have a choice, they are more likely to approach challenging tasks with interest and persistence, even in the absence of rewards.

Brehm (1966): People who perceive their freedom is being restricted often show psychological reactance—a motivational state that pushes them to avoid or resist the controlling influence.

Example: A teenager told not to hang out with a friend may approach that friend more, to restore autonomy.

Gagné & Deci (2005): Employees with high perceived autonomy show greater engagement, creativity, and approach behavior. In contrast, micromanagement or rigid rules increase stress and avoidance behaviors, like withdrawal or passive compliance.

Reeve et al. (2004): Students in autonomy-supportive classrooms (teachers offer choice and rationale) were more likely to approach academic tasks with enthusiasm, while controlling environments led to avoidance and lower performance.

People realize that more power is moving upwards and they are losing control in many ways.  Having a sense of freedom and autonomy will continue to become more valuable.  Map how your organization can provide these valuable words.

AVOIDANCE MOTIVATION

Avoidance Motivation:  The energization of behavior by, or the direction of behavior away from, negative stimuli.  The energization occurs when the brain's fear system is activated by a threatening stimulus.  This motivation can be driven by fear, anxiety, and discomfort.  It can lead to protective behaviors like avoiding risks, delaying action, or withdrawing. 

Examples include:

Employee Experience:  Avoid engagement at work due to fear and social anxiety

Customer Experience:  Avoid asking for help regarding a product or service due to social anxiety.

Map how you can help increase more approach by addressing the need of customers and employees to have their avoidance motivations.

BEHAVIOR MOMENTUM

Behavioral momentum is a concept from behavioral psychology that describes how once a pattern of behavior is started—especially one that's reinforced—it tends to persist, much like a ball rolling downhill. It’s inspired by the idea of momentum in physics.

Map how you can build momentum through multiple touchpoints.  This will help customers and employees perform that tasks that lead to results for everyone.

CERTAINTY

Is that a Tiger in the woods or a snake/stick on the ground?  Think about it too much and it is too late.  The human need to process certainty quickly was imperative for survival. 

Below are some quotes and work by Beau Lotto (Neuroscientist):

"We do almost everything to avoid uncertainty.  Yet, the irony is that's the only way we can go to see things differently." 

DO:  To help people be curious instead of afraid, give them some safety certainty.

"We'd rather hold onto assumptions that we know do not work because that is safer than to question them and go into a place that we do not already know.  Even though that place might be a lot better than where we are right now."

"Our brain evolved to take what is meaningless and make it meaningful."

As mentioned previously, the human brain doesn't have the time and energy to get all the information before making a decision.  We make meaning on limited data.

Certainty in a world of change is a high value word.  Mapping certainty will improve service (increase confidence) and provide you quick wins.

COMPASSION

Here are some highlights from the book "Compassionomics" by Stephen Trzeciak and Anthony Mazzarelli (the book is a systematical review of what the compilation of the studies of compassion revealed in healthcare):

"you never really know what kind of pain people are carrying around"

DO:  What is going on the brains of others is so dark to us.  Especially people who we do not know.  Even those who you have spent a lot of your life with, so much of their past experiences that shape their decisions are still dark.

DO:  Compassion takes energy.  Both at the individual level and at the organization level.  Two ways to increase approach is through education and developing a culture of compassion.

Heart attack patients that do not have the emotional support had three times higher odds of death.

Compassion calms the human physiological response to stress.  Compassion also heavily impacts the autonomic nervous system.

A compassionate touch from a supportive other can lower the other persons blood pressure.

In a study of trauma patients, the odds of a patient-reported good outcome were four times higher when the physician had a higher rating when it came to compassion.

Using brain imaging - when a person was alone or holding a stranger's hand as he or she anticipated a shock, the regions of the brain that process danger lit up like a Christmas tree.  

When holding the hand of a trusted person, the brain grew quiet.

Non-verbal immediacy (e.g. leaning in toward the patient, less interpersonal distance, making direct eye contact, and facial expressiveness, such as smiling and nodding) had a significant association with better patient functional outcomes on both physical and cognitive functioning.  

DO:  Compassionate Approach from a trusted provider can increase approach in another person.  Approach leads to more approach.

- Patients with diabetes were 80 percent higher (in terms of controlling blood sugar) with high compassionate physicians.

- Compassion from nursing aides was associated with lower depression in nursing home residents.

- Simply communicating better can be interpreted as higher compassion.

- Science shows that hope matters.  And science shows that compassionate care can be a powerful restorer of hope."

"Compared to patients of low compassion providers, the rate of cancer screening adherence among patients of high compassion providers was 13 to 30 percent higher"

"the presence of depersonalization among health care providers is a marker for an inability to have compassion and an absence of compassion... depersonalization prevents compassion"

"Research shows that if health care providers consistently demonstrate compassion, patients are more likely to believe they know what they are doing"

"Compassion accounted for 65 percent of the variation in how patients rated their satisfaction with their health care provider"

"Researchers found that 56 percent of the physicians believe they do not have time to treat patients with compassion."

"Researchers found the believing to be in a hurry was the only factor that predicted whether or not participants stopped to help a person in need."

"Research shows that approximately 50 percent of US physicians are suffering from burnout"

A lot of content provided in this topic.  It matches the importance of the word.  Being there for people who experience physical and mental pain will continue to be even more important as stress continues to escalate on society.  We recommend mapping this word (Especially for healthcare!)

CURIOSITY - NOVELTY

Curiosity is the drive to seek new information, experiences, or sensations—especially when there's a knowledge gap or novelty.

It’s a reward-based system: just like hunger motivates us to find food, curiosity motivates us to find answers or new experiences.   When something is unfamiliar or slightly risky, curiosity can override avoidance impulses and lead us to engage.

In a world with increasing unknowns, helping people be curious and seek novelty can help others adapt to constant change - and increase approach towards your organization.

DISGUST (Insular Cortex)

The insula, buried deep within the folds of the brain’s cerebral cortex, plays a central role in the awareness of internal bodily states.  It processes taste, pain, temperature, and emotional experiences tied to visceral reactions.   

How It Relates to Disgust: The insular cortex lights up when we encounter things that evoke disgust—whether that's a rotten smell, a disturbing image, or even morally offensive behavior.  Key functions in disgust processing include:  

>  Sensory Integration: The insula receives input from taste and smell receptors, which are common triggers of physical disgust.  

>  Emotion & Survival: Disgust serves as a protective mechanism—it helps us avoid disease or contamination. The insula helps map this emotional response to bodily sensations, like nausea or gagging.  

>  Social & Moral Disgust: Interestingly, the insula isn’t just about spoiled food—it’s also activated by ethical violations, injustice, or offensive social behavior. This suggests our experience of disgust goes beyond physical safety into social and moral domains.  

Studies using fMRI show strong activation in the anterior insula when participants view disgusting images or experience unpleasant tastes. 

DO:  Powerful word in terms of Approach and Avoid.  So much of this at the subconscious level.  Very important for mapping.

Video by Robert Sapolsky in terms of Insular Cortex and Disgust.

Mapping Disgust is important to reduce current and future avoid.  Disgust is highly important survival word!  A lot of it is under the hood, so it is better to map it out and do proactive work (example - a person can find an input disgusting and they will avoid your organization in the future - without knowing what was disgusting).  What is positive with mapping is that you can truly be proactive and prevent a lot of this negative inputs.

EMOTION CONTAGION

Emotion contagion is the phenomenon where emotions spread from one person to another, almost like catching a cold—but instead of germs, it’s feelings that transfer. Whether it’s a smile that makes you feel lighter or a tense room that makes your shoulders tighten, you’ve likely experienced this in action

How does your organization create and maintain a positive buzz?  Map it out to increase crowd approach actions.

FEAR - SAFETY

Fear is a powerful influence guiding human approach-avoid behavior, typically tipping the scale toward avoidance. However, fear can also fuel approach, especially when the goal is to confront, control, or overcome a threat.

Fear signals potential danger activating a fight or flight response.  The amygdala is a part of the brain that processes fear.  It rapidly assesses threats and triggers a response.  Within research,   LeDoux (1996) - found that the amygdala can process fear stimuli even before the cortex fully registers what's happening, explaining instinctual avoidance reactions.

Fear can also suppress approach motivation.  In situations where a reward (approach) is tied to potential punishment or failure (fear), people may freeze or withdraw.  Examples of this can include public speaking and testing.  This fear of failure damages the pursuit of success.

Fear and Safety are top survival words (essential in mapping approach-avoid actions).  

FAIRNESS

Perception of fairness plays a large role in approach-avoidance behavior, especially in social, moral, and decision-making contexts. When we perceive something as fair, we’re more likely to approach it; when we sense unfairness, we tend to avoid, resist, or retaliate—even if it comes at a personal cost.

Examples include:  

Fairness encourages approach behavior:

• Fair treatment activates the reward system in the brain (e.g., the ventral striatum and prefrontal cortex).
• People are more likely to cooperate, trust, and engage with organizations they perceive as fair.

Research: Tabibnia et al. (2008) showed that receiving a fair offer in an economic game activated the brain’s reward circuitry, even if the offer wasn’t large—just being treated fairly was rewarding.

Unfairness Triggers Avoidance or Retaliation:

• Unfairness is perceived as a threat to social norms and personal dignity.
• The perception of unfairness activates areas like the anterior insula, which is associated with disgust, anger, and social pain.
• Unfairness can trigger fight-or-flight style responses—either avoid or confront the      source of unfairness.

Research: Sanfey et al. (2003) used the Ultimatum Game and found that participants rejected unfair offers, even when it meant losing money—because the emotional brain (insula) outweighed rational gain (PFC).

Justice as a Motivational Driver:

• Humans are wired to seek fairness — social cooperation and survival.
• A fair system leads to more goal-directed (approach) behavior, while an unfair one leads to withdrawal or sabotage (avoidance or retaliation).

Fairness relates to status within a society.  For customers and employees, being treated unfairly will increase avoidance.  Much of this can be avoided with proactive actions.  

FEELING

How a person is feeling in the moment can influence approach-avoid thoughts and actions.  

You can map and design feelings you want others to experience or you can map end results of what the experiences are providing.  In either case, mapping feelings help your organization understand how a person may be interpreting their experience for future approach or avoid.

GOALS

Goals have a profound influence on human approach-avoidance behavior—they serve as internal “magnets” that pull us toward certain outcomes (approach) or push us away from threats and distractions (avoidance). The strength, clarity, and emotional charge of a goal determine how we initiate, sustain, or inhibit behavior in the face of opportunities and obstacles.

Approach-Oriented Goals → Increase Motivation to Act

These are goals framed in terms of gaining a desired outcome (e.g., success, reward, connection).

• They activate dopaminergic systems linked to curiosity, drive, and positive      emotion.
• Examples:
  • “I want to get promoted” → approach extra projects
  • “I want to run a marathon” → approach tough workouts

Research Elliot & Church (1997): Found that individuals with approach-goal orientations had higher persistence and performance in academic and competitive contexts.

Avoidance-Oriented Goals → Heighten Inhibition or Anxiety

These are goals focused on avoiding failure, embarrassment, or loss.

• While protective in some cases, they often:
  • Increase stress and vigilance
  • Lead to procrastination or risk-aversion
• Examples:
  • “I don’t want to fail this test” → might lead to overstudying or avoidance of even trying
  • “I don’t want to get hurt again” → avoidance of dating or vulnerability

Research Gable & Impett (2012): Found that people with avoidance goals in relationships had lower satisfaction and more emotional suppression, compared to those with approach goals (e.g., deepening connection).

Map how your organization can both help customers/employees accomplish goals and do so most efficiently with you.

GROUP CONFORMITY

Group conformity refers to the tendency of individuals to adjust their attitudes, decisions, and behaviors to align with those of a group. This instinct isn't just about fitting in—it's deeply tied to our emotional system of approach and avoidance, shaping the way we navigate social life.

As mentioned with fear and safety, in an increasing uncertain world with a lot of changes, survival words become more important versus times when one is more relaxed and satisfied.  Being a part of a group will help a person survive.  How will your organization map and accomplish this need?

HABIT

Habits are like mental shortcuts—we perform them automatically with little conscious thought. When it comes to approach-avoid behavior, habits quietly shape how we respond emotionally to people, tasks, or environments, guiding us toward pleasure and away from discomfort over time

DO:  With the brain needing to maximize energy, habits and routines help preserve brain energy.

Map how you can both help a person preserve and create a positive habit.

HOMEOSTASIS

The human body’s drive to maintain internal balance (temperature, hydration, energy, and emotional equilibrium)—is a core driver of approach-avoid behavior. When homeostasis is disrupted, it generates biological signals (like hunger, thirst, fatigue, or anxiety) that push us to approach what restores balance or avoid what threatens it.

Approach-avoid behavior is how your body defends its balance and survival.

In a world with more uncertainty, change, and stress, expect more imbalances of homeostasis.  People will approach inputs that help them keep balance in their life.

HUNGER

Hunger has an impact on approach avoid behavior in multiple ways.

Examples can include:

Risk-taking:  A study by Symmonds et al. (2010) showed that hungry participants were      more impulsive and more likely to make risky choices in gambling tasks.  (Increased approach while reducing avoid of potential loss)

Survival (Physical):  To satisfy hunger, individuals can change avoidance tendencies and steal and make morally questionable decisions.  

Survival (Cultural):  Hunger can influence judges and juries to provide harsher sentences for moral transgressions.

Shopping:  Tal and Wansink (2013) found that hungry shoppers bought more high-calorie      food and non-food items.  Hunger increases approach behaviors toward any form of perceived reward, even beyond food, weakening avoidance of unnecessary purchases.

HUNGER STUDY ON BEING MORE JUDGEMENTAL

An interesting and possibly more complicated word to map.  There are various angles to this.  An obvious important survival word.  

IDENTITY ALIGNMENT

Identity alignment refers to how well an experience, behavior, or decision fits with a person’s sense of self—their values, beliefs, roles, and social identity. When something aligns with your identity, it feels natural, reinforcing, and rewarding—prompting approach behavior. When something clashes with your identity, it feels wrong, threatening, or dissonant—leading to avoidance behavior.

Identity alignment = the match between external choices/actions and internal self-concept
It answers the question: “Is this me?”

It affects how people behave across relationships, careers, politics, culture, and morality. It’s why we lean toward things that "feel like us" and reject what doesn't.

How do you map experiences to have customers and employees align values between everyone?  This gets repeated a lot, however, it is important.  In a world of increasing uncertainty, change, and stress, people are looking for safety - comfort (things that help them survive).  Being with others who share their worldviews will become even more import

INFORMATION OVERLOAD

DO:  There is just too much information - too many inputs - in the world.  The human brain has to filter almost all of it out.  The brain takes bits of information that are going to be Useful in some way.  This is why the study of Energy and those Inputs (and how we interpret them) is so important.  Humans have to manage their energy and Approach what is Useful.

- Bizarre/Funny/Visually striking things stick out more than non-bizarre/unfunny things.  We tend to raise the importance of inputs that are unusual or surprising.  We tend to skip over inputs that we think are ordinary or expected.  This makes sense with our energy use.

DO:  The human brain is looking for difference.  It can predict the predictable.  (As an example, drive the same route to work and you can be thinking of other things as you drive - until something 'different' happens (ex. an animal running across the road).

From a Business Perspective, we see this play out in advertising - it is taking more energy to reach customers.  The brain gets used to advertising and tunes it out.  The brain looks for something different worth extending extra energy and to survive.

The Subconscious is Approaching Change - Differences to help us survive.

For mapping, how is your organization being proactive to map the most effective ways to get your message across at all major touchpoints?

MEANING - PURPOSE

We are constantly trying to understand and survive the world around us.  We have access to a limited amount of data on what these limited inputs mean.  Thus, creating meaning within this limitation is important for the brain to move forward and Approach.  Meaning provides focus and motivation.

Meaning and Purpose are powerful words that lead to stronger approach.  How is your organization managing these words at major touchpoints?

NOSTALGIA

Nostalgia is a powerful emotional state that reflects a longing for the past—typically associated with warm, positive memories. While it might seem like a backward-looking emotion, nostalgia actually has strong forward-moving effects on human behavior, especially by promoting approach and buffering avoidance tendencies.

Nostalgia is a sentimental longing for personally meaningful experiences, people, or places from the past—often tinged with bittersweet emotion.

It frequently involves social connections, identity, or a “golden” time, and often arises during uncertainty, loneliness, or distress.

For many, moving into a world of increasing stress and uncertainty is not desirable.  Escaping (a form of adapting to change) and seeking inputs that help a person reflect on easier times takes less energy than adapting to current inputs.  It also provides positive feelings.  How does your organization improve adapting needs of your customers and employees?

ORDER

Order—the presence of structure, predictability, and organization in our environment—has a significant impact on approach-avoid behavior. Humans are wired to seek patterns and stability, and when the world feels orderly, we tend to approach more confidently. In contrast, disorder or chaos can trigger avoidance.

Order helps humans:

• Predict    >  outcomes
• Feel         >  in control
• Reduce    >  cognitive load
• Enhance  >  emotional stability

It’s tied to our homeostatic drive for psychological safety. When order is present, our nervous system relaxes, and we become more open to exploration, risk-taking, and social interaction—all forms of approach behavior.

Anxiety → threat sensitivity → avoidance

1. Order Promotes Moral Flexibility & Creativity

Vohs et al. (2013):
Participants in orderly rooms were more likely to choose healthy food and make conventional choices, while disorderly rooms led to greater creativity and novelty seeking—but also more moral rigidity and rule-breaking.

• Order      → Safe, familiar = conformity and approach to “known good”
• Disorder      → Uncertainty = cautiousness or creativity (depends on context)
• 2. Disorder      Increases Moral Judgment Harshness

Zhong & Liljenquist (2006):
People exposed to physical disorder (messy rooms, dirty hands) showed a stronger desire for moral cleansing, became more judgmental, and avoided moral ambiguity—suggesting a need to restore psychological order via moral rigidity.

3. Uncertainty and Avoidance

Hirsh, Mar, & Peterson (2012):
In uncertain (disordered) environments, people become more neurotic, risk-averse, and more likely to avoid novel choices, even when they are potentially rewarding.

4. Clutter and Cognitive Overload

McMains & Kastner (2011):
Cluttered environments increase visual and cognitive load, which makes it harder to focus, increases mental fatigue, and encourages withdrawal or task avoidance.

Context

Order-Promoting (Approach)

Disorder-Promoting (Avoidance)

Workspace

Clean desk → focused, engaged

Clutter → procrastination, mental fatigue

School

Predictable schedule → class participation

Chaotic classroom → student withdrawal

Relationships

Clear communication → emotional openness

Unpredictable behavior → withdrawal, conflict avoidance

Society

Rule of law → trust, civic engagement

Political/economic chaos → fear, apathy, migration

An important survival word and highly recommended for you to have a "Touchpoint Run Map" with this word.  People want order - it provides safety.  With many words, by mapping and implementing effective inputs along your touchpoints, you can create a lot of quick wins for both your customers and employees.

PAIN

Customers-Mental Pain

Example Sources: Stress, anxiety, confusion, embarrassment, decision fatigue. 

Avoidance Triggers: Complicated interfaces or unclear instructions. Aggressive sales tactics or overwhelming choices. Negative past experiences (e.g., poor customer service). 

Approach Triggers: Empathetic service, clear communication, and emotional reassurance. Familiarity and trust in the brand. 

Employees-Mental Pain

Example Sources: Burnout, lack of recognition, toxic work culture, job insecurity. 

Avoidance Behaviors: Reduced engagement, absenteeism, or even quitting. Avoiding tasks or people that cause stress. 

Approach Behaviors: Seeking supportive managers or teams. Engaging more with tasks that offer autonomy and recognition. 

Customers-Physical Pain

Example Sources: Discomfort in physical environments (e.g., loud noise, poor seating, long waits). 

Avoidance Behaviors: Leaving stores early or avoiding them altogether. Choosing online options over in-person experiences. 

Approach Behaviors: Returning to environments that are physically comfortable and accessible. 

Employees-Physical Pain

Example Sources: Poor ergonomics, long hours, physically demanding tasks. 

Avoidance Behaviors: Taking more breaks, avoiding certain tasks, or calling in sick. 

Approach Behaviors: Engaging more in roles with better physical conditions or accommodations

A strategy you can use for pain along a customer and employee journey is to have a "Two Word Touchpoint Run Map".  In this way, you map out where either pain is created within an experience or how a person brings in pain to the experience.  Pain would be a word and then Compassion/Empathy (How will "be there" for them) as a counter along major touchpoints.  Not only can accomplish quick wins with this strategy, you are building strong long term memories for future approach.

POWER AND CONTROL

Power and control help with certainty.  Certainty increases the changes of survival.  Depending on the self-esteem needs of the individual, the actions taken to acquire power and control of others will vary.

The world is changing so quick and people feel powerless.  By mapping out touchpoints on how your organization will be there for your customers and employees and provide them a sense of control and power, you will increase approach behavior.

PRESENCE OF OTHERS - AUDIENCE EFFECT

The audience effect refers to how the mere presence of others changes our behavior—often amplifying our emotional responses and decision-making patterns. When paired with approach-avoid behavior, it reveals how deeply our actions are steered by social awareness and emotional regulation. 

Approach > Knowing someone’s watching can trigger feelings of excitement, pride, or anticipation, nudging us toward approach actions.  

Performance Enhancement: In familiar or well-practiced tasks, we often perform better when observed, driven by confidence or a desire to impress.  

Social Rewards: Applause, praise, or admiration function as emotional incentives, reinforcing approach tendencies (think: athletes in stadiums or students presenting projects).  “Eyes on us” can feel energizing when we're prepared and seeking approval.  

Avoid > If the task is unfamiliar or anxiety-provoking, an audience can trigger avoidance emotions like embarrassment or self-doubt.  

Threat Sensitivity: People may withdraw, freeze, or underperform when they perceive others as critical or intimidating.  

Risk Minimization: To avoid the emotional sting of failure or ridicule, individuals may back away from opportunities or stay silent.  The crowd’s gaze becomes a mirror—sometimes reflecting encouragement, other times amplifying insecurity.

A little more complicated to map, it can provide tremendous benefits depending on the circumstance.  

PRICE

The price of a product or service heavily motivates approach and avoid.  The use of resources to purchase an item reflects survival.  

Price is the exchange of valuable energy between your customer and organization.  Managing perception of this exchange is vital to success.

PRIMING

We notice things that are already primed in memory or repeated often.  We are more likely to notice items that are related to inputs that have been recently loaded in memory.

DO  Used heavily in advertising and politics.  The same thing repeated over and over.  Reflect on this when you hear an advertisement or someone repeating something over and over to build a narrative in your brain.

- We notice when something has changed.  We also weigh the significance of the change (positive or negative).  The brain needs to make a quick decision about that change.

We are drawn to inputs that confirm our existing beliefs and ignore details that are contradictory to our beliefs (Confirmation Bias).  

DO:  Our existing beliefs are important for Survival.  Also, changing beliefs requires Energy.  Alas, these two sections are included on this site as two individual pages because of the importance of each.

How does your organization prime customers to the positive benefits of doing business with your organization?  

REPRODUCTION - SEX

Survival plays a role in reproduction.  There are multiple ways in which reproduction play at the subconscious level, which impact human approach-avoid behavior.  

Sexual or Romantic Attraction → Increased Approach Behavior

• Subconscious attraction can automatically activate reward systems in the brain, triggering:
  • Desire> to engage, impress, or pursue
  • Increased> risk-taking and social boldness
  • Heightened> eye contact, body orientation, and proximity

Research Gonzaga et al. (2001): Found that romantic thoughts increase dopamine and oxytocin, which enhance approach behaviors like openness, self-disclosure, and warmth.

 Fear of Rejection or Social Norm Violations → Avoidance

• Even with attraction present, subconscious anxieties (e.g., fear of being judged, rejected, or seen as inappropriate) can trigger avoidance behavior.
• This is especially true in:
  • High-stakes social settings (e.g., workplace, formal events)
  • Cultures with strict gender norms or where courtship is taboo

Research Gray’s Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS): When potential reward (approach) is paired with possible punishment (rejection), the BIS activates avoidance or hesitancy

Can take more energy to map.  However, it is a basic survival function (so much at the subconscious level) that impacts approach.

REPETITION

Repetition builds familiarity. In the context of approach-avoidance, that familiarity can:  Enhance approach behavior if the stimulus becomes associated with safety, pleasure, or reward.  Enhance avoidance behavior if the stimulus becomes linked to pain, discomfort, or threat.  

The Mere Exposure Effect Repeated exposure to a stimulus increases liking and approach tendency, even without conscious awareness.  Familiar things feel safer and more trustworthy.

Customers and employees are inundated with constant information.  Repeating positive inputs is necessary to increase approach actions.  Map out how you can accomplish this along multiple touchpoints.

RISK REWARD TRADEOFF

The risk-reward tradeoff is a fundamental principle in decision-making, economics, and psychology. It describes how humans evaluate the potential benefits (rewards) of an action against its possible costs (risks), and how this evaluation shapes our approach or avoid behavior.

- Approach happens when perceived reward outweighs risk
- Avoidance occurs when perceived risk outweighs reward

Examples:

Outcome > Perceived Reward > Perceived Risk > Likely Behavior

High reward/low risk > Big promotion, easy to get > Minimal effort > Strong approach

High reward/high risk > Start a business > Possible loss of savings > Weigh carefully or approach with caution  

Low reward/high risk > Speaking up but getting rejected > Social judgment > Strong avoidance

Low reward/low risk > Eating a snack > Minor cost > Mild approach (low-stakes)

How is your organization managing the perception of Risk and Reward?

STATUS - HIERARCHY - SELF ESTEEM

A persons perceived status on a hierarchy has a large impact on human approach-avoid behavior.  The human brain in very fast speed assesses peoples rank and authority.   Those higher on a rank exhibit more approach behavior than those who perceive and/or are lower.

Research:  (Sapolsky, 2005): In primates, low-status individuals show increased cortisol levels, leading to social withdrawal and reduced motivation to compete—mirroring human patterns of avoidance in hierarchical settings.

There is strong evidence that self-esteem keeps the physiological arousal associated with anxiety in check.  Self-esteem is more than a mere mental abstraction:  it is felt deeply in our bodies.  Studies have shown that feelings of self-worth also diminish defensive reactions to thoughts of death.

Self-esteem takes the edge off our hostile reactions to people and ideas that conflict with our beliefs and values.

People who based their self-worth on physical strength generated a stronger handgrip after they thought about death.  People who based their self-worth on physical fitness reported increased intentions to exercise.  People who based their self-worth on beauty reported greater concern about their appearance.

The need for self-esteem is constantly at work, prodding us on beneath the surface of awareness to maintain our protective shield against terror.

Like other species, we fight like hell when faced with physical death.  But we humans go much further.  Even the slightest intimation of our mortality prods us to work harder to leave our mark on the world.  We fight to prove our worth, even in the smallest ways.

Ways self-esteem can break down.  

Individuals, or groups of people, can lose faith in their cultural worldviews.  When people lose confidence in their core beliefs, they become disillusioned because they lack a functional blueprint of reality. Without such a map, there is no basis for determining what behaviors are appropriate or desirable, leaving no way to plot a course to self-esteem.

A person has to feel a valued part of a culture.  Falling short, whether due to your ascribed place in society, your own failings or unrealistic cultural expectations, is the second cause of struggles with self-worth.

Self-esteem plummets when cultures embrace standards of value that are unattainable for the average citizen

The costs of low self-esteem

A short list of problems associated with low self-esteem:

poor physical health, depression, anger, hostility, suicidal thoughts, psychosis, alcohol and substance abuse, adolescent smoking, risky sexual behavior, suicide attempts, eating disorders, self-harm, compulsive gambling, compulsive buying, and cheating.  Regardless of how or why self-esteem is compromised, the result is the same.  Suffering from high levels of anxiety, people with low self-esteem do what they can to reduce it.

Just like physical survival, we will fight to preserve our self-esteem in the same way - because for us humans self-esteem is our symbolic protection against death.  

What can we do to acquire it?  One tactic is to encourage individuals to cultivate diversified self-concepts..... By placing our psychological eggs in many different baskets, we increase the odds that we'll have durable ways to feel good about ourselves.  Knowing which baskets are right for us is also important.  Example - You shouldn't aspire to become a professional opera singer if you can't carry a tune.

Powerful survival and essential mapping words.  We recommend having maps with this along your most important touchpoints.

STIMULATION

Stimulation—both physical and psychological—has a major influence on human approach-avoid behavior, because it directly affects our arousal levels, attention, and emotional regulation. Whether the stimulation is sensory (light, noise, pain) or cognitive (complexity, novelty, or mental demand), it can either motivate approach (when it's engaging or rewarding) or trigger avoidance (when it's overwhelming or unpleasant).

Stimulation refers to external or internal input that activates our senses, mind, or body. It can be:

• Sensory:      light, sound, touch, taste, smell
• Cognitive:      complexity, novelty, puzzles
• Social/emotional:      excitement, challenge, confrontation

Our threshold for stimulation is shaped by both biology and personality (e.g., introverts vs. extroverts, HSPs, ADHD).

Stimulation Level -Likely Response

Low (understimulation)

Boredom → Seek stimulation → Approach behavior

Optimal (moderate)

Engagement, flow → Maximal approach

High (overstimulation)

Stress, sensory overload → Avoidance, withdrawal

This pattern is consistent with the Yerkes-Dodson Law (1908), which shows that performance and motivation are highest at moderate arousal levels, and decline at extremes.

An important reminder of the inputs that come to the five senses.  

STRESS

During stress, the sensory shortcut from the thalamus to the amygdala becomes more active, with more excitable synapses

The amygdala region is highly sensitive to glucocorticoids, with lots of glucocorticoid receptors; stress and glucocorticoids increase excitability of amygdaloid neurons, particularly in the basolateral amygdala (the BLA), it has the role of learning fear

With more stress, the amygdala indirectly activates the glucocorticoid stress response.  Then, glucocorticoids increase amygdala excitability

Stress also makes it harder for us to unlearn fear

Stress impacts the human frontal function - for a stressed frontal cortex, or one that's been exposed to a lot of glucocorticoids... stress weakens frontal connections with the hippocampus - essential for incorporating the new information that should prompt shifting to a new strategy - while strengthening frontal connections with more habitual brain circuits.

DO  Reflect on this when you see someone doing the same unsuccessful behaviors over and over

Stress fosters aggression - because it reduces stress

With chronic stress the nucleus accumbens is depleted of dopamine, biasing rats in experiments toward social subordination and biasing humans toward depression.

Words we encounter have a wide range of impacts on us.  This is because our brain regions that process language also control the insides of our body, including major organs and systems that support our body budget.

DO:  Words have a large impact on Approach and Avoid.  As such, we have a page dedicated to it.  Both for better design of experiences but also how words can impact the brain to increase approach. (3)

Long periods of chronic stress can harm the human brain.  Scientific studies are absolutely clear on this point. (3)

Stress also impacts the human in group/out group bias.  Stress can trigger heightened vigilance towards perceived threats, often associating outgroups with potential danger. 

Exposure to acute stress affects the retrieval of out-group related bias in healthy men

Be proactive to stressful of inputs of customers and employees by mapping the most stressful touchpoints based on feedback.  

TIME

Available time plays a role in approach-avoid.  More available time in a store can induce more purchasing versus someone rushing to get out the door.  

How does your organization map time - customer and employee energy?  How can you map out strategies that impact the perception of time available for others?

TRAUMA and PTSD

Trauma and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) can profoundly impact human approach-avoid behavior, often leading to chronic avoidance of people, places, thoughts, or situations associated with trauma. But paradoxically, trauma survivors may also approach danger or high-stress situations, especially if re-exposed or desensitized, or when reenacting trauma unconsciously.

Most of this is dark and unknown.  However, by learning more about customers and employees, we can understand more how they are attempting to survive and thrive based on their past experiences.  This is yet another example of how important communication and feedback is.

TRUST

Trust is a powerful modulator of approach-avoid behavior. It turns on the psychological "green light" to engage, open up, and connect. When trust is broken—or never formed—avoidance becomes the dominant strategy: socially, emotionally, and behaviorally.

Broken record but important - In a world of increasing uncertainty and stress, finding people and organizations a person can trust is vital to adapting and surviving.  Map out how your organization can develop trust at the most important touchpoints. 

US/ THEM - IN GROUP VS OUT GROUP

Human brains form Us/Them dichotomies with very fast speed.... fifty millisecond exposure to the face of someone of another race activates the amygdala, also.... failing to activate the fusiform face area as much as same-race faces do- all within a few hundred milliseconds.  The human brain groups faces by gender or social status at roughly the same speed. (2)

DO The human brain is built to survive - As can be seen, Approach Avoid analysis and decisions are made quickly

People with the strongest negative attitude towards other groups tend to have low thresholds for interpersonal disgust

DO We all have different levels of disgust and brain connections.  An individual is unaware of the level of these connections in their brain

As humans, we all belong to multiple Us/Them dichotomies.  

Attempts to control and repress Us/Them antipathies use the frontal cortex .... a subliminal fifty-millisecond exposure to the face of another can activate the amygdala, and if exposure is long enough for conscious detection (about five hundred milliseconds or more), the initial amygdala activation is followed by PFC activation and amygdala damping; the more PFC activation, particularly of the "cognitive" dlPFC, the more amygdala silencing.  The PFC is regulating discomforting emotions.

Various strategies have been found to decrease implicit biases - to better understand the world around us.  A classic one is perspective taking (which is why the skill of Detached Observation is important) which enhances identification with Them.  

Approach-Avoid <> InGroup-OutGroup:  Having this topic in your maps is important as humans immediately make this analysis.  Map ways to solid within the InGroup of your customers and employees.

As society attempts to adapt and learn how to work better with OutGroups, the brain is what it currently is.  The brain establishes this so quickly.  Map out strategies that keep customers and employees feeling your organization is an important InGroup.

USEFUL

A powerful word as it combines survival and energy in the highest regards.  Time is limited - so the brain is seeking what is useful.  Survival is key - what is useful to survive till the next day?

We recommend having a "Touchpoint Run Map" with just this word.

This section is less about mapping and more about learning, reflecting, and using detached observation to better understand human approach-avoid behavior.  The topics explored in this section seek to understand what is going on "under the hood".    

There really aren't 'centers' in the brain 'for' particular behaviors. (2)

DO  We humans like to put things in categories.  It saves energy and makes life simple.  However, the brain does not care that we want it simple.  How the brain works is complicated and much is still unknown.   

Referring to brain-body budgeting, brain "prediction beats reaction"... those throughout human history who predicted accurately were more likely to be around vs those who waited to react. (3)

The human brain is not for rationality, emotion, imagination, creativity, or empathy.  The human brains most important job is to control the body - to manage allostasis.  It does this by predicting energy needs before they arise so we can efficiently make worthwhile movements and survive. (3)

ALLOSTASIS

Allostasis > Automatically predicting and preparing to meet the body's needs before they arise.  (3)

The brain is a network - a collection of parts that are connected to work as a single unit.

The human brain is similar to an Airport Hub.  Hubs are for the backbone of communication throughout the brain.  It allows most neurons to participate globally even as they focus more locally.

Three items to reflect on.  The importance of energy, predicting, and balance.  Helping other people with these three can be very helpful to improve a moment or experience. 

AMYGDALA

The brain region (amygdala) is most involved in feeling afraid/anxious and is most involved in generating aggression. The amygdala, specifically the BLA (basolateral amygdala), gets projections from all the sensory systems. (2)

Some sensory information entering the brain takes a shortcut, bypassing the cortex & going directly to the amygdala.  The amygdala can be informed about something scary before the cortex has a clue. (1)

DO:  This shortcut of bypassing the cortex to the amygdala happens all the time.  As an example, you witness someone who says something quickly in anger that they later regret what they said or how they acted.  Much of their reaction is at the subconscious level.  Sometimes, we can catch ourselves before we say something.  

The amygdala receives news of fear and aggression - pain.  This is mediated by projections from an ancient, core brain structure, the 'periaqueductal gray' (PAG)... Unpredictable pain, rather than the pain itself, is what activates the amygdala. (2)

The amygdala also receives a projection from the 'insular cortex', a part of the prefrontal cortex. (1)

There is a considerable amount of evidence suggesting that the amygdala is critical for learning, storage, and expression of fear conditioning. (1)

The amygdala/hippocampus interface

The amygdala talks to other limbic structures, including the hippocampus - the amygdala learns fears and the hippocampus learns detached, dispassionate facts... The hippocampus decides whether an input is worth storing for future use - this can depend on whether the amygdala got worked up over it. (2)

DO  The hippocampus storing the input for later use is vital to future Approach or Avoid 

The amygdala communicates issues of emotion, including aversion and fear.  The nearby ventral hippocampus conveys information regarding emotional context.  The dorsal hippocampus provides spatial information and related memories.  The taste associational cortex, provides taste signals that are already modified by sensory-specific satiety signals.  The thalamus relays information from the energy control systems in the hypothalamus and the hypothalamus has some projections straight to the NAc (nucleus accumbens).  The limbic areas send information to the striatum to make go - no go decisions (approach/avoid) for action. (1)

The brain is constantly on guard.  A takeaway can be that each customer and employee has someone on watch ready to protect them from physical (less likely in a business environment) or another form of attack (cultural, self-esteem, status, resources, etc.).  It is important to reflect on when designing human experiences.

ANTERIOR CINGULATE CORTEX

The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) monitors conflicts between approach and avoidance. 

Role: Detects conflicts (e.g., wanting something but fearing consequences), helping to mediate between approach and avoidance.  Example: Hesitation before public speaking.

BAS and BIS

BAS>  A behavioral approach system (BAS) is believed to regulate appetitive motives, in which the goal is to move toward something desired. 

BIS>  A behavioral avoidance (or inhibition) system (BIS) is said to regulate aversive motives, in which the goal is to move away from something unpleasant.   

Extraversion, reward sensitivity, reward expectancy, and BAS measures share a common core that appears related to a tendency to approach

Neuroticism, harm avoidance, punishment sensitivity, and BIS measures share a common theme that is shown to be related to avoidance motivation.

Several brain areas differentially respond to positive affective stimuli as a function of extraversion.  The dopamine system also plays a role, with mesolimbic and mesocortical dopaminergic pathways showing more activation during reward-directed behavior.  (1)

The heritability of approach-related personality traits may be due to the genetic structure underlying dopamine functioning... ex.  "different genotypes of DRD4 may lead to differential levels of expressed novelty seeking and extraversion through the differential activation of dopaminergic pathways." (1)

In terms of avoidance-related behavior, glucose metabolism rates in the amygdala predict some aspects of negative affective reactions and predict the differential ability to understand NA. (1)

Individual differences in baseline activation of the right prefrontal cortex predict individual differences in negative affective functioning as well as behavior inhibition. (1)

"Neuroticism (and depression) has been associated with the activation levels of the serotonin transporter gene 5 - HT.  This gene appears to moderate the effects of stress on depression, rumination, and activation of brain areas associated with NA." (1)

DO:  As can be seen with the information provided so far at this site, approach and avoid is complicated.  There is so much under the hood that is happening to a person that is unknown to everyone what will cause that person to approach or avoid.  As such, big picture tendencies can be the best way to start and then continue to keep learning as humans discover more. 

"Gray's theory has many interesting implications.  For example, let's say you want to motivate someone to engage in some behavior, say to quit smoking.  You could present your arguments in term of the rewards of quitting (food will taste better) or the aversive consequences of continuing (shortness of breath).  For some persons (those with strong BAS) you should emphasize the rewards of quitting (food will taste better, they will feel healthier, they will will live longer).  On the other hand, with individuals who have a strong BIS, it might work better to emphasize the threatening or aversive aspects of not quitting (multiple diseases, health complications, early death)." (2)

Since people can be so different, a reflection idea is to focus on communication and feedback with customers and employees.  Have a lot of energy towards the area of listening.

DOPAMINE and ACETYLCHOLINE

Approach involves the release of dopamine (DA) in the accumbens, whereas Acetylcholine (ACh) is correlated with, or causes, avoidance.  ACh creates a state that is at least inhibitory and sometimes aversive. (1)

Over the last three decades, it has become increasingly clear that dopamine (DA) contributes heavily to brain mechanisms that allow the pursuit of a great variety of positive rewards and contributes to reinforcing effects that impact appetitive learning.  This can also lead to a variety of addictions. (1)

Dopamine is involved in both positive and negative reinforcement. (1)

Five examples of approach and avoidance are reviewed.  On the approach side:  eating, positive conditioned stimulus, brain self-stimulation, drug intake, and sugar binging.  These are contrasted with opposing behaviors, which are in the avoidance category:  satiation, negative conditioned stimuli, behavior depression, drug withdrawal, and sugar withdrawal.  All the approach situations have DA (dopamine) release in common.  All the avoidance situations feature a rise of accumbens ACh (Acetylcholine). (1)

Each person has various levels of release and those levels are unknown to that person.  Similar to the above reflection, listening and communicating can help uncover some of this unknown.

DOPAMINERGIC SYSTEM

The dopaminergic system is about reward- various pleasurable stimuli activate tegmental neurons, triggering their release of dopamine.

Chronic stress or pain depletes dopamine and decreases the sensitivity of dopamine neurons to stimulation, producing the defining symptom of depression - the inability to feel pleasure.

DO  Having too many stressful and depressing inputs will lower approach behavior with the drop of motivation and lower dopamine

In a study, a monkey has learned that when he presses a lever ten times, he gets a raisin as a reward. That's just happened, and as a result, ten units of dopamine are released in the accumbens. The monkey then presses the lever ten times and gets TWO raisins.  20 units of dopamine are released.  And as the monkey continues to get paychecks of two raisins, the size of the dopamine response returns to 10 units.  Now reward the monkey with only a single raisin, and dopamine levels decline.

Get more reward and/or get it sooner than expected, and there's a big burst; less and/or later, a decrease.

DO:   Important information to reflect on how dopamine drives behavior> It’s not about reward, but its anticipation.   

In a study where subjects were shown an item to purchase... they were told the price - if it was less than what they were willing to spend, there was activation of the emotional vmPFC - if it was expensive in their view, there would be activation of the disgust-related insular cortex.

DO  At a level unknown to us, we have predictions from the brain (expectations).  What happens next triggers reactions internally.  Our emotions can there share externally to others what was interpreted internally.  Positive or negative.

Once reward contingencies are learned, dopamine is less about reward than about its anticipation

Dopamine - along with reward anticipation, it also is the fuel of goal-directed behavior needed to obtain a reward - dopamine 'binds' the value of a reward > to resulting work

Not only is the release of dopamine dark to all of us, the chronic pain or stress of a persons past is also mostly unknown.  With constant stress in society, it should not be a surprise the rising levels of depression and multiple levels of motivation.

EXTRAVERSION and NEUROTICISM

Extraversion >   The state of or tendency toward being predominantly concerned with and obtaining gratification from what is outside the self : a personality trait or style characterized by a preference for or orientation to engaging socially with others.

Neuroticism >   A broad personality trait dimension representing the degree to which a person experiences the world as distressing, threatening, and unsafe. 

Just reading the above two definitions we can see from a detached perspective that how a person from each word will approach - avoid inputs differently.

FACES

The brain biases us toward preferentially looking at eyes... not only does the the amygdala detect fearful faces, but it also plays a role in obtaining information about fearful faces in others

DO:  Survive Survive Survive.  The brain is constantly at work predicting and attempting to make it through another day.  

FRONTAL CORTEX

It includes working memory, executive function, gratification postponement, long-term planning, regulation of emotions, and reining in impulsivity.  The frontal cortex makes you do the more difficult action when it is the right thing to do. The frontal cortex is not fully online until people are in their mid-twenties. (2)

HPA AXIS

The HPA axis (hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal) governs stress responses, influencing avoidance tendencies. 

The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis as a substrate for stress resilience: interactions with the circadian clock

HUMAN OLFACTORY

The human olfactory system - roughly 40 percent of a rat's brain is devoted to olfactory processing, versus 3 percent in humans

The human  olfactory system sends more direct projections to the limbic system than other sensory system

If people around you smell scared, your brain moves toward concluding that you are too.

DO:  There is just so much that is beyond our conscious awareness.  When was the last time you remember smelling fear?

NUCLEUS ACCUMBENS

As part of the ventral striatum, it functions to process reward and motivation.  

Role: Drives approach behavior by responding to anticipated pleasure or positive outcomes.  Example: Anticipation of food, social rewards, or money.

OXYTOCIN

Oxytocin and Vasopressin facilitates bonding between both a parent and child as well as between couples

When a dog and its owner (not a stranger) interact, they secrete oxytocin.  The more time spent gazing at each other, the larger the rise.

Along with bonding, oxytocin inhibits the central amygdala, suppressing fear and anxiety - it also activates the calm, vegetative parasympathetic nervous system

Oxytocin elicits prosocial behavior, and it is released when we experience prosocial behavior

POSITIVE AFFECT and NEGATIVE AFFECT

Positive Affect (PA) - Appetitive stimuli - positive reward cues, signals of safety.  Enthusiasm, interest, pleasantness, or relief that can be termed Positive Affect.

Negative Affect (NA) - Aversive motivated states.  Avoidance motivation or withdrawal that is elicited by aversive stimuli - threat cues, punishment, etc.  Experienced as negative emotions ranging from anxiety , anger, frustration, and disgust.

People who are high in NA will exhibit, on average, higher levels of distress, anxiety, annoyance, irritability, hostility, worry, anxiety, fear, and dissatisfaction, and they tend to focus on the unpleasant characteristics of themselves, the world, the future, and other people. (1)

People that are high on the trait PA dimension are characterized by a high level of energy and engagement with the environment, particularly the social environment.  Others see them as enthusiastic, optimistic, and actively involved with life.  They tend to have optimistic expectations about the future and are highly sociable, preferring the company of others to isolation. (1)

"..over a dozen studies have reported correlations between extraversion and PA and neuroticism and NA suggesting that these two traits have strong affective components" (1)

"Extraverts consistently report more PA in response to positive-mood-inducing stimuli, and high-neuroticism persons report more NA in response to negative-mood-inducing stimuli" (1)

Positive Aspect promotes exploratory behavior.  They will want to "play" with the environment and seek others who wish to enjoy these experiences as well. (1)

When examining specific brain areas that showed increased activation to negative images relative to positive images, researchers found that neuroticism correlated with reduced activation in the left mid temporal gyrus and the left mid frontal gyrus.  These results are consistent with earlier imaging studies of depressed persons (a condition linked to neuroticism), which identified reduced metabolism in the left frontal cortex associated with depression. (1)

DO:  A key point on a approach and avoid >  The spectrum of approach and avoid varies widely depending on the individual.  A particular input is approach for some and avoid for others.  Also, changes in the brain mean that it could be approach today but avoid tomorrow.

Abundant evidence suggests a prefrontal cortical asymmetry in PA and NA.  Assessed with EEG, PA is associated with left prefrontal cortex activation, whereas NA is associated with greater relative right prefrontal cortex activation. (1)

PREEXISTING TENDENCIES

Pain does not cause aggression - it amplifies our preexisting tendencies toward aggression.... Pain makes aggressive people more aggressive, while doing the opposite to unaggressive individuals

Various studies show that when the frontal cortex labors hard on some cognitive task, we tend to be more aggressive and less empathetic, charitable, and honest

DO:  When you want someone to be more charitable and empathetic, remember it takes energy.  There has to be a reason to extend resources.

PREFRONTAL CORTEX

The prefrontal cortex (PFC) chooses between conflicting options - Example > Coke or Pepsi... and often the conflict is between a decision driven by cognition and emotions.

Once it has decided, the PFC sends orders via projections to the rest of the frontal cortex, sitting just behind it. Those neurons then communicate with the 'premotor cortex', sitting just behind it, which then passes it to the 'motor cortex', then communicates with the muscles - and a behavior occurs (Approach - Avoid). (2)

Frontal cortical neurons are generalists, with broad patterns of projections, which makes for more work.  This takes a lot of energy.  When it is working hard, the frontal cortex has an extremely high metabolic rate and rates of activation of genes related to energy production. (2)

Frontal neurons are expensive cells - Note> Expensive cells are vulnerable cells. 

DO  Energy is so important.  This has huge impacts on human Approach - Avoid behavior:  Frontal neurons are expensive cells, and expensive cells are vulnerable cells.  Being more advanced as a human - Higher levels of thinking and having empathy, perspective-taking, and compassion, require the use of this energy.

Increased cognitive load on the frontal cortex, and people become less prosocial, less charitable or helpful, and are more likely to lie. (2)

DO  Another person having too many inputs and large cognitive load is mostly dark to us - We also do not know what the limits of cognitive load are on the people around us - It varies from person to person.  Expect more avoid when a person is overloaded.

When people are under stress, distraction, or heavy cognitive load, the two streams can dissociate (Ex. Do X and Never Do X)... The chance you will do precisely the wrong thing rises not despite your best efforts but because of a stress-boggled version of them. (2)

DO  Better approach decisions become challenged under heavy stress and cognitive load

The structure and function of the frontal cortex varies enormously among individuals - the resting metabolic rate in the PFC varies approximately thirtyfold among people. (2)

REGULATION

Regulating approach-avoidance behavior is a core part of human functioning—it’s how we manage impulses to act (approach) or withdraw (avoid) based on our goals, values, fears, and social context. This regulation involves conscious control, emotional processing, and biological systems working together to help us survive and thrive within our environments. 

Parts of brain in regulation:

-Prefrontal Cortex (PFC) > Executive control, planning - overrides impulses and weighs outcomes

-Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC) > Conflict monitoring - detects internal conflicts (wanting to approach and avoid)

- Amygdala > Fear, threat detection - Can be downregulated by PFC to reduce avoidance

- Basal Ganglia/Dopamine > Reward and motivation - drives approach; modulated to support patience or caution

- Insula > Self-awareness - helps sense bodily signals that cue avoidance or anxiety

REWARD PREDICTION ERROR

Reward Prediction Error (RPE) is a concept from neuroscience and psychology that describes the difference between the reward you expected and the reward you actually received. It plays a crucial role in learning, especially in shaping human approach-avoid behavior.

RPE = Actual Reward – Expected Reward

• If you get more than expected → Positive RPE → encourages approach (do it again!)
• If you get less than expected → Negative RPE → encourages avoidance (change or      stop behavior)

The brain uses these errors to learn, update expectations, and adjust behavior.

Parts of brain associated with RPE:

- Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA) > Releases dopamine when RPE is detected 

- Nucleus Accumbens > Encodes reward value and approach motivation

- Prefrontal Cortex > Updates expectations and makes decisions

- Amygdala > Weighs emotional relevance of unexpected outcomes

- Hippocampus > Stores context of when rewards/surprises happened

Research Schultz et al. (1997): Found that dopamine neurons fire more when unexpected rewards occur (positive RPE), and reduce firing when rewards are omitted (negative RPE).

SEROTONIN

Low serotonin impacts impulsive aggression, as well as cognitive impulsivity - difficulty in temporal discounting or trouble inhibiting a habitual response

Nearly all serotonin is synthesized in one brain region (the raphe nucleus), which projects to the following: the tegmentum, accumbens, PFC, and amygdala, where serotonin enhances dopamine's impact on goal-directed behavior.

The striatum receives inputs that use serotonin to arouse it, norepinephrine to generate focused or scanning attention, and dopamine (DA) to signal salient events and promote action. (1)

SITUATION LABELS

Human behavior is changed by situational labels - call a game 'Wall Street Game', and people become less cooperative.  Call a game 'Community Game' and it does the opposite. .. have people read random word lists before playing - with warm fuzzy words in the list - help, harmony, fair, mutual - fosters cooperation... while words like rank, power, fierce, and inconsiderate foster the opposite

DO  Words matter as the brain attempts to understand what is happening in the world.  Post positive words at work and at home. 

SPEED OF BRAIN  PROCESSING

The gender of a face is processed within 150 milliseconds.  The same goes for interpretation of social status

After a 40 millisecond exposure, people accurately distinguish high from low status presentations

DO:  First Impressions matter!  Impressive how quickly the brain interprets another person in milliseconds.  At all times, we can see that the brain wants to know right away what is happening.  

TESTOSTERONE

Testosterone increases confidence and optimism, while decreasing fear and anxiety - winning increases the number of testosterone receptors in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (the way station where the amygdala communicates with the rest of the brain).  Success in everything... boosts testosterone levels

Testosterone does build new social patterns of aggression - it exaggerated preexisting ones

Testosterone makes us do what it takes to attain and maintain status  

UNDER THE CONSCIOUS - RACE RELATIONS

The more expensive a supposed (placebo) painkiller, the more effective people report the placebo to be.  If you ask a person their favorite detergent - if they've just read a paragraph containing the word ocean, they're more likely to choose the brand Tide.  Over a course of a few seconds, sensory cues can shape your behavior at the unconscious level

The human brain is incredibly attuned to skin color.  In tests, people were exposed to a flash of a face for less than a tenth of a second (one hundred milliseconds), too short to know that they have seen something.  Then, have the person guess the race of the pictured face - there is a better-than-even chance that they will guess accuracy.

There is more activation in the amygdala when a person is considered racist (according to implicit test of race bias)

A person of white skin color sees a black face shown at a subliminal speed, the amygdala activates.  If the face is shown long enough for a conscious processing, the anterior cingulate and the cognitive dlPFC then activate to inhibit the amygdala

DO  In human history, we were in small tribes of similar race and beliefs.  Within just a couple hundred years, the worlds population skyrocketed and we are now a mix of races, beliefs, and cultures.  As can be seen from above, two things are true:

1.  The brain does not evolve at the speed in which human population rose and spread throughout the globe.  Seeing people who are different than us impacts all of us at the subconscious level.  Due to the need for survival, negative is more advantageous than positive.

2.  Based on brain structure and upbringing (experiences that teach the brain), we all move forward at different speeds when it comes to interpreting someone who is different than 'us'.

When an input enters the brain... Most of it is funneled through the sensory way station in the thalamus and then to the appropriate cortical region (Visual or auditory cortex) for the slow, arduous process of decoding light pixels, sound waves, etc.  -  into something identifiable.  And then the information is recognized for what it is and then it is passed to the limbic system

Information hits the amygdala fast but it  is often inaccurate

DO:  Repeat- Information that hits the amygdala is fast but is often inaccurate.  Makes sense when you consider the bias to and importance of survival.

VENTRAL STRIATUM

The ventral striatum is associated with reward-seeking behavior. 

A universal role of the ventral striatum in reward-based learning: Evidence from human studies